A spoken dialogue system (SDS) is a computer-based machine designed to converse with a human. A dialogue between the machine and the user relies on turn-taking behavior. For example, a user can ask the machine to locate an Italian restaurant in downtown. In response to the request, the machine may state it was unable find any Italian restaurants in downtown. The user's request and the machine act or response form one turn in the dialogue. As the dialogue progresses, the SDS is able to obtain the information needed to complete one or more user goals (e.g., provide the name and location of an Italian restaurant). How an SDS is trained affects the efficiency and effectiveness of the SDS.